Forms crystals
The shape of each crystal is not samasatu against the other, but the crystals have a wide variety of forms. Crystalline form is perwujutan all crystal planes that have the same relative position to the areas of symmetry or axes of symmetry.
There are 3 forms of crystals, namely:
1. The basic form (singular), is a crystalline form in which all the existing field has the same relation to the axis of the crystal, except the prisms where the plane perpendicular to the c axis; base field is not taken into account.
2. The form of the combination is a combined form of one or more of the forms of different basis that will form a new shape. The new form is the result of the combination.
3. Form a twin crystal form consisting of two or more of the same form which would be a new form.



Stature Crystals
Many minerals have a perfect crystal form, when in its formation there is any disturbance. In the wild are rare forms of perfect crystals, for it used the term stature crystals. Crystal stature means the typical shape of a crystal is determined by the built areas, including the size of the crystal. Wake of a crystal shape really looks not perfect shape crystal owned it since in the wild in the state of the crystalline and amorphous group.
As mentioned above, the crystal stature is not a fixed crystal characteristics, because its shape is strongly influenced by environmental conditions during crystal formation occurs. Nevertheless been known that the crystal stature often seen in certain types of minerals, so that stature is also a hallmark crystals that can be used in the determination of the type of mineral.
The terms for the determination of crystal physique that is widely used is divided into 3 parts, among others:
1. The term for solitary crystals:
a. Capillary (become like hair), such as hair.
b. Filliform (fibrous), like a thread.
c. Acicular (menjarum), such as needles.
d. Bladed (membilah), such as a knife.
e. Tabular (memapan), such as books; flat.
f. Lamellar (layering), such as layered.
g. Foliated (mendaun), like leaves; thin sheets.
h. Plumose (membulu), like a feather.
i. Blocky (membata), such as bricks.
j. Columnar (meniang), such as a pole; column / pillar.
2. The term for clustered crystals:
a. Columnar (meniang), groups such as masts.
b. Bladed (membilah), like a bunch of wooden planks.
c. Fibrous (menyerat), as sekelompo fibers.
d. Recticulated (capture), such as a net or network.
e. Divergent (scatter), like a fan.
f. Radiated (menjari), such as fingers.
g. Stellated (starred), like a star.
h. Dendritic (mendendrit) like a tree.
i. Collorm (rounded-round).
3. The term for crystal-shaped round.
a. Batryoidal, such as fruit menteng / wine.
b. Reniform, such as the kidneys.
c. Mammillary, bleak breasts.
d. Globular, like a ball.
e. Granular, such as granules.
f. Pisolitic, such as peanut granules.
g. Oolitic, just as fish eggs.

Besides the above terms, of course, there are other terms that are similar, or other division by categories. It is still possible because the source is different.

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Structure of Crystal Axis
In addition to determining or measuring the angle of the field of two large, then to be able to imagine the crystal shape we must also determine the position of the field-field coordinate axis arrangement.
In the known crystal there are seven kinds of arrangement of the different axes remember three things, namely:
The number of axes.
Judging from its axis otal there are 2 kinds:
a. Consists of 3 axis is the axis a, b, and c.
b.Terdiri of 4 axis is the axis a, b, c, and d.
The angle formed by the axis.
Viewed from the angle formed by the axis, there are 4 kinds, namely:
a. Three mutually perpendicular axes (90º).
b.Empat axis, 3 axis which lies in one plane and mutually angled 120º, being the fourth axis perpendicular to the axis of the last three.
c. Three axis, where the axis perpendicular to the other two axes. Being the last one to two axes are mutually angled between 90º and 120º and contained in one plane.
d. Three intersecting axes make an angle of more than 90º.

Parameter / unit length of the axis.
Judging from the parameters, known there are 3 kinds, namely:
a. Three axis with the same parameters.
b.Tiga axes with different parameters.
c. A single axis with different parameters with two or three other axes.

Crystal System
Based on the composition of the crystal axes that have been described above, then the world known crystal 6 (six) crystal system, namely:
1. The regular system / isometric / cubic.
This system consists of a three-axis arrangement axis having the same length and all three mutually perpendicular (a = b = c and a ┴ b ┴ c).
2. tetragonal system.
Consists of three axes where the two axes of equal length and perpendicular to one another, while the third axis or the c axis perpendicular to the axis had different lengths (a = b ≠ c and a ┴ b ┴ c).


3. hexagonal system.
Consists of four axis where the three axes have the same length and form 120º angles lie in one plane, while the fourth axis as the vertical axis and perpendicular to the axis of the other three had different lengths. The fourth axis is often called the c axis (a = b = d ≠ c and a, b, d ┴ c).
4. System ortorombis.
Consists of three axes with different length but the three mutually perpendicular axes (a ≠ b ≠ c and a ┴ b ┴ c).
5. monoclinic system.
Consists of three axes with different length, while the b-axis perpendicular to the axis of the other two, but the axis a is not perpendicular to the c (a ≠ b ≠ c and a ┴ ┴ b b and c).
6. System triklin
Consists of three axes with different length, whereas the angle formed by the third axis is not perpendicular different also.

Crystal Field Symbols
Crystal axes are straight lines that penetrate the center of the crystal. Its position is determined by the symmetry of the crystal. The crystal axes have parameters (unit of length) that can be the same or different. The parameters required for the calculation of the position of a crystal field.
For ease of illustration, the crystal field given symbol consisting of a series of round numbers and figures that show how the intersection of the field relative to the crystal axes.
In the literature there are various ways of writing the symbol of the crystal field, such as: Weiss, Miller, Nauman, Dana, and Goldschmidt.

According to Weiss in symbolism should not be any fractional number, then rounded to 2a: 3b: 6c. Meanwhile, according to Miller (Miller indeces) for ALM field will be:

1/1 A: 1/1 ½ b: 1/3 c then equated the denominator, becomes: 3/3 A: 2/3 b: 1/3 c. So that was written by Miller is the numerator is (321).

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MINERALOGY

Mineralogy is the study of minerals in the form of elements and compounds found in nature and is forming the solid parts of the universe. Mineralogy is not only limited to the materials of the earth's crust, but there are also from outside the earth, and based on geophysical measurements provide an indication of some of the properties of minerals contained under the crust.
Mineralogy is the branch of geology, because it is a rock-forming minerals of the earth's crust, Chemistry is also closely related to mineralogy, because the mineral is a chemical compound. The outer skin of the earth is called the crust, composed by solids that everyday we call rock. While the rocks are all kinds of materials that make up the earth's crust, and is an aggregate of minerals that have been hardened. Generally, a concoction some minerals rock.
Therefore mineralogy is the study of minerals, then we begin with a clear understanding of the mineral. To formulate a precise definition of the mineral in fact quite difficult. However, the mineral can be defined as follows: Minerals is a homogeneous solid objects found in nature, formed by inorganic, have a chemical composition on certain limits, and having the atoms are arranged in a regular
Mineral is a homogeneous solid body, it is stated that the mineral is composed of solid phase, only one kind of material that can not be broken down into compounds simpler by a physical process. With these requirements, then the liquid gas mapun excluding minerals.
Restrictions contained in nature is very necessary, because the chemical laboratory can be made a lot of minerals. For example, is the result of the evaporation of a solution of sodium chloride in the form of crystals that can not be distinguished from the mineral halite, also manufacture gemstone / accessories for commercial purposes, and so on.
Limitation that the mineral formed an organic-meaning that the mineral has a homogeneous solid objects generated instead of animals, plants and humans. However, do not eliminate the possibility of the presence of organic compounds as minerals. Many such substances, for example solid hydrocarbons, calcium oksulat been found in pet and coal; but is the result of burning natural distillation.
The requirement that the chemical composition of the mineral has a certain limit means minerals are chemical compounds, and chemical compounds that have a composition in certain limits are expressed in a formula either simple or complex. It depends on the number of existing elements and proportions combination.
Then another requirement is to have the atoms are arranged on a regular basis is a measure of the state of crystallization which can be seen in the picture outside. Position atoms in minerals according to certain rules, such as the mineral halite (NaCl) in which each atom of Na and Cl respectively surrounded by fields of eight by six Cl atoms and Na. While substances are not crystaling such as glass  nature, there is no regularity as mentioned above substances belonging to the amorphous substances.

Crystallography

Crystallography is the study of images of the crystal. Each type of mineral is not only composed of certain elements, but also has a particular form called crystal form. Crystalline form various patterns but always polieder or field a lot.
In the rare natural crystalline minerals ideal, the possibility dijumpa not in crystalline form but called crystal; For regular atomic arrangement. Proving it can be done with X-rays. Minerals that will be investigated given x-rays and minerals mounted behind the portrait sensitive paper. Thus the sheet of paper portrait will provide images. If the picture is regular and symmetric then the crystalline mineral, but if it does not say not so crystal.
Crystal is a solid object or substance that is homogeneous with the surface consists of flat areas formed by atoms or molecules are arranged regularly. Regularity properties of the composition is reflected by the outer face of the crystal that consists of flat areas. Complete crystal face is a polieder, and always limited by flat areas called fields crystal with a certain amount.
Minerals that crystallize bounded by areas together form the field much typical for a type of mineral. Regarding large crystals or crystal boundary wake there may be a triangle, rectangle, hexagon, and others-others are not so important. But most important is the angle field of two or polieder pivot angle of the crystal. Turns angle field two of each type of crystal is always fixed, this law we refer to as the Law of Steno (legal statutes two field angle). An example is the apatite crystals in which the angle between the x and m always at 130 ° 18 '. Two field angle measurement between x and m are using a goniometer or contact goniometer (reflectie goniometer).

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Structure, process and stadia are important factors in the discussion of geomorphology. Discussion of a region is not complete if one of them is not dealt with (ignored). In the preceding discussion, it has been noted that three factors are known as the basic principles of geomorphology, whereas in this portion will be clear again, how the meaning and position of these three factors in the study of geomorphology.

1 Structure

To learn landscape form a region, then the first thing to note is that the geological structure of the area. As already noted, that the geological structure is an important factor in the evolution landscape and it is reflected in the structure of the earth, it is clear that landscape an area controlled / controlled by geological structures. In addition to the geological structure, are the properties of rocks, among other things whether the rocks are fractures (stocky), presence or absence of the field layer, fracturing, friability, porosity and permeability properties of rocks from one another.

According Thornburry, that understanding the structure of the geomorphology has a wider sense, while Lobeck distinguish between "Structural Geology" and "Structure Landscape". Some term geological structure: horizontal structure, dome structure, fracture structure, structure folds, volcanic structures; Some of the term structure landscape: plains or plateaus, hills dome, mountains faults, folds mountains, mountain complex. Because the structure is determined by the structure landscape geology, where the geological structure occurs by endogenous force, the structure can be interpreted as a form landscape landscape caused by endogenous style.

2 Process

Many experts, such as Worcester, Lobeck, and differ in interpreting Dury on the definition of geomorphological processes, they assume that what is meant by the process here is a process that comes from within and outside the Earth (endogenous processes and process eksogenik), some are thought process here is the energy that comes from outside the Earth (exogenous force) only. The notion here is energy process that works on the earth's surface that come from outside the Earth (exogenous style) and not from the earth (endogenous style).

Definition of "geomorphic Processes" solely inspired by the energy / process derived from

extraterrestrial, the reason is:

1. The energy comes from the earth (endogenous style) is more likely as a factor that builds, such as the formation of plains, plateaus, mountains dome, mountain folds, faults mountains, and volcanoes.

2. The energy of extraterrestrial origin (exogenous force) is more likely to change the shape or

landscape structure.

Style damage that causes any stage phases or "stages" on every kind landscape. Stage or stage is not caused by endogenous style like diastrophisme or vulcanisme.

Undeniably, that is both stylish (endogenous and exogenous), which is also known as endogenous processes and process eksogenik have a dominant influence in the formation of a specific landscape on this earth, therefore the genetic history landscape divided into two major categories yes it is:

1. Landscape contruksional, ie all landscape formed by style

endogenous (exogenous force has not worked here, so it is still at the initial level).

2. Landscape destruksional, ie all landscape formed by exogenous force against landscape generated by endogenous style, through the process of weathering, erosion, abrasion, and sedimentation.

Thus it can be explained that the definition of prose here is all the styles that affect the destruction (recast) landscape form resulting from endogenous style allowing landscape experience stadia Young, Adult, and Elder. Landscape reform process occurs through the river (fluvial processes), glaciers, waves, and wind. All four were referred to as dynamic agents (mobile agents / geomorphic agent) because they can erode and transport materials in the earth and then precipitation in certain places.

.3 Stadia

Stages / levels landscape (wheel geomorphic) declared to know how far the level of damage that has occurred and the stage / stage what landscape condition today. To state levels (treadmill geomorphic) used the term: (1) Young, (2) Adult and (3) Old. Each level in the geomorphology characterized by certain traits specific, not determined by age landscape

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Relief earth is meant here is covering a very broad sense, both found on continents or oceans contained bottom. Based on the broad sense, the relief of the Earth can be grouped into three major categories, namely:

1. Relief Order I (Relief of the first order)

2. Relief Order I I (Relief of the second order)

3. Relief Order III (Relief of the third order)

The grouping of the three types of relief above is based also upon occurrence of each.

Hence it contains elements relative time.

1 Relief Order First

Consisting of Exposure Continent (Continental Platforms) and Ocean Basin (Ocean Basin). The forms of the first-order this includes a very large dimensions on earth. As we know that water and its land area totaling 107 million square miles, which consists of a vast continent (continents) amounted to 56 million square miles and the rest is 10,000,000 square miles wide from the edge of the continent (continental shelf). What is meant by Exposure Continent include Continental and Continental Bank. Thus the total exposure Continent is 66 million square miles. Exposure to North and South Americas, Eurasia, Africa, Australia, and Antarctica is the Courant-highest portion of the surface of the lithosphere.

The edge of the continent is part of the continental shelf which is located below sea level. Ocean basin has an average depth of 2.5 miles below sea level, although we know that the topography of the ocean floor has an irregular shape. There are a lot of very deep depression of average depth limit, known as the Sea Trench (Ocean Troughs), besides that there are also parts of the seabed which appear on the surface or gradually being close to the sea surface.

Relief of the first order is known to be closely related to the occurrence of the earth, thus theories of geology, astronomy, physics and mathematics, such as "planetesimals Hypothesis", "Spreading seafloor Hypothesis" and "Continental Drift Theory" became an integral part in the formation of relief of the first order.

.2.Relief Second Order

Relief Order two commonly referred to as forms that build (Constructional forms), this is due to the relief of the second-order formed by endogenous style as a constructive force. Area of ​​the continents and the ocean puddles where the presence or formation of units of the reliefs of the second order, such as Plains, Plateau and Mountains.

3. The shape of the energy generated by ocean waves, namely:

a. Erosional forms, such as: erode sea caves

b. Residual forms, such as: staoks & Arches

c. Depositional forms such as: beaches, bars and spits

4. Form created by wind energy, namely:

a. Erosional forms, such as: blow holes in sandy areas

b. Residual forms, such as: pedestal and mushroom rocks.

c. Depositional forms such as sand or clay sediment in the form of dunes or loess.

In addition to the energy of the physical damage, the organism can also be an agent that tends to destroy the rocks in the earth's surface, otherwise the activity of precipitation can produce forms such as coral reefs (coral-reefs) and karst. It can be concluded, that the time of formation of the third-order relief is different. The first form of relief is formed ahead of the second-order relief and relief of second-order form ahead of the third-order relief

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To learn geomorphology required a good knowledge base in the field of climatology, geography, geology and some physics and chemistry which is closely related to the process and the formation of the earth. Broadly speaking, the process of formation adheres to the principles of sustainable earth in the form of geomorphic cycle (geomorphic cycles), which includes the establishment of land by force from the earth (endogenous), the process of destruction / weathering due to outside influences or exogenous force, the deposition process of the results demolition earth (gradation), and resurfaced as endogenous energy, and so on is a geomorphological cycle is in a very long time scale.

1. Processes and the same physical laws work now, work is also in the geologic time ago, although the intensity is not the same as it is now.

2. The geological structure is the dominant controlling factor in the evolution of the form

landscape and geological structure is reflected by the shape landscape.

3. The difference between the face of the earth that is different from one another due to the degree of

different formation.

4. Processes geomorphology leave scars that real in any form landscape and geomorphological processes will build a certain characteristic in the form of landscape (leaving a trail-specific and can be distinguished clearly by another process).

5. Due to differences in erosion force acting on the surface of the earth, then produced an order form landscape that have certain characteristics at each stage of its development.

6. Evolution of complex geomorphic more common than simple geomorphic evolution (development of landform is generally very complex / complicated, rarely caused by a simple process).

7. Only a few of the topography of the surface of the earth is older than Tertiary age, and

most of it is not more than the Pleistocene.

8. Interpretation appropriately to landscape now impossible without regard to changes in climate and geology during the Pleistocene (Introduction to landscape while now must pay attention to the process that takes place in the Pleistocene epoch)

9. Appreciation climates in the world sorely needs to know right from the various interests in the processes of different geomorphology (the study landscape global, knowledge about global climate need to be considered)

10. Although geomorphology emphasize mainly on landscape now, but for

learn optimally need to study the history of its development.

In addition to the basic concepts mentioned above, in the study of geomorphology ways and methods of observation should also be considered. If the observations were made from field observation alone, then the information obtained includes only a narrow observation (only limited ability of the eye can see), so it will not gained a broad overview of the landscape observed. To overcome this need stiffened several things:

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a. Landscape observations made from a high place in order to obtain a broader view. However, this method has not been much help in observing landscape, because even though we are at a certain height, sometimes covered by dense forest view so that unobstructed view. Except, where we stand at the time of observation landscape the highest place and there is no single thing that block. And that's just limited to the ability of the eye can see.

b. Observations are not directly in the field using remote sensing much better included photo or non-photo image, this method can perform extensive observation and quick.

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Sciences that are closely related to geomorphology mainly of Earth Sciences,

including the:

Physiographic. At first physiographic include the study of the atmosphere, hydrology and

landscape and third-party study of such objects are generally grown in continental Europe, while geomorphology is one branch of Physiography. With the rapid advancement of the development of the study of the atmosphere (meteorology) and hydrology in the United States led to the object of study Physiographic become more limited, ie only learn landscape alone, so in America Physiographic term synonymous with Geomorphology.

Object Geologimempunyai broader study of the geomorphology, because covers

study of the entire crust of the earth, while the geomorphology is limited to studies of the crust of the earth's surface. Therefore, the geomorphology is considered as a branch of geology and geomorphology later in its development into a separate science, regardless of geology. Geological structure and dynamic geological sciences are branches of geology which is very helpful in studying geomorphology. With dynamic geology may help to explain the evolution of the earth's surface, while the geological structure in explaining the types of forms landscape. Many forms landscape reflected by the geological structure. Therefore, it is necessary to study geomorphological knowledge of these sciences.

Meteorology and Climatology, which studies the physical state of the atmosphere and climate.

This science has an influence, either directly or indirectly to the process of change in the earth's countenance. Weather conditions such as the wind, lightning, humidity and the effect of climate change can bring major changes to the shape of the existing earth romance. Therefore, to study the changes that occur on the surface of the earth, the necessary knowledge of these sciences.

Hydrology is the study of everything about the existing water

on earth (the science of the waters of the earth), including in this case water in rivers, lakes, oceans and underground water. Knowledge of hydrology will also aide in studying geomorphology. Similarly, the atmosphere, water can also cause changes to the existing earth romance and can leave scars.

Geography object has a broader study of the geomorphology, because

include aspects of the physical and social Earth's surface. While geomorphology emphasis on forms found on the surface of the earth. Geography emphasizes the study on "Space Oriented" which can show where and how the spread of the form landscape and why it spread so. Given the nature of the geography of the "Anthropocentris", and in conjunction with the study of geomorphology, then comes a sub-discipline of "Geography of landform". Where in it also includes, how Confessing

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landscape to apply any type of activity and human life. In other words, to establish a reciprocal relationship between humans and the existing landscape

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